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The Papuan languages are the non-Austronesian languages spoken on the western Pacific island of , as well as neighbouring islands in Eastern Indonesia, , and . It is a strictly geographical grouping, and does not imply a genetic relationship.

is the most linguistically diverse region in the world. Besides the Austronesian languages, there arguably are some 800 languages divided into perhaps sixty small language families, with unclear relationships to each other or to any other languages, plus many . The majority of the Papuan languages are spoken on the island of New Guinea, with a number spoken in the Bismarck Archipelago, Bougainville Island and the Solomon Islands (for example, Lavukaleve to the east, and , and the to the west). The westernmost language, in , is extinct. One Papuan language, , is spoken within the national borders of , in the eastern .

Several languages of Flores, , and other islands of eastern Indonesia are classified as Austronesian but have large numbers of non-Austronesian words in their basic vocabulary and non-Austronesian grammatical features. It has been suggested that these may have originally been non-Austronesian languages that have borrowed nearly all of their vocabulary from neighboring Austronesian languages, but no connection with the Papuan languages of Timor has been found. In general, the Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages are marked by a significant historical Papuan influence, lexically, grammatically, and phonologically, and this is responsible for much of the diversity of the Austronesian language family.

Concept
The "Papuan languages" are a strictly geographical grouping, and does not imply a genetic relationship. The concept of Papuan (non-Austronesian) speaking as distinct from Austronesian-speaking was first suggested and named by Sidney Herbert Ray in 1892.

According to William A. Foley (1986):

Speaker numbers
Most Papuan languages are spoken by hundreds to thousands of people; the most populous are found in the New Guinea Highlands, where a few exceed a hundred thousand. These include Western Dani (180,000 in 1993) and (100,000 reported 1985) in the western (Indonesian) highlands, and (230,000 in 2000), (150,000 reported 2011), and (130,000 reported 1991) in the eastern (PNG) highlands. To the west of New Guinea, the largest languages are in (100,000 in 2010) and in (80,000 reported 1990). To the east, (27,000 reported 2003) and (20,000 reported 2007) are spoken on Bougainville.

History of classification
Although there has been relatively little study of these languages compared with the Austronesian family, there have been three preliminary attempts at large-scale genealogical classification, by , , and Malcolm Ross. The largest family posited for the Papuan region is the Trans–New Guinea phylum, consisting of the majority of Papuan languages and running mainly along the highlands of New Guinea. The various high-level families may represent distinct migrations into New Guinea, presumably from the west.Wurm 1975 Since perhaps only a quarter of Papuan languages have been studied in detail, linguists' understanding of the relationships between them will continue to be revised.

Statistical analyses designed to pick up signals too faint to be detected by the comparative method, though of disputed validity, suggest five major Papuan stocks (roughly Trans–New Guinea, West, North, East, and South Papuan languages); long-range comparison has also suggested connections between selected languages, but again the methodology is not orthodox in historical linguistics.Murray Gell-Mann et al. (2009) " Distant Language Relationship: The Current Perspective", Journal of Language Relationship·Вопросы языкового родства

The Great Andamanese languages may be related to some western Papuan languages, but are not themselves covered by the term Papuan.

Wurm (1975)
The most widely used classification of Papuan languages is that of , listed below with the approximate number of languages in each family in parentheses. This was the scheme used by prior to Ross's classification (below). It is based on very preliminary work, much of it typological, and Wurm himself has stated that he does not expect it to hold up well to scrutiny. Other linguists, including William A. Foley, have suggested that many of Wurm's phyla are based on and structural similarities, and accept only the lowest levels of his classification, most of which he inherited from prior taxonomies. Foley (1986) divides Papuan languages into over sixty small language families, plus a number of isolates. However, more recently Foley has accepted the broad outline if not the details of Wurm's classification, as he and Ross have substantiated a large portion of Wurm's Trans–New Guinea phylum.

According to Ross (see below), the main problem with Wurm's classification is that he did not take into account. For example, several of the main branches of his Trans–New Guinea phylum have no vocabulary in common with other Trans–New Guinea languages, and were classified as Trans–New Guinea because they are similar grammatically. However, there are also many Austronesian languages that are grammatically similar to Trans–New Guinea languages due to the influence of contact and . Similarly, several groups that do have substantial basic vocabulary in common with Trans–New Guinea languages are excluded from the phylum because they do not resemble it grammatically.

Wurm believed the Papuan languages arrived in several waves of migration with some of the earlier languages (perhaps including the Sepik–Ramu languages) being related to the Australian languages,

(2026). 9780731521326, ANU Press. .
a later migration bringing the West Papuan, Torricelli and the East Papuan languages
(2026). 9780700711970, Routledge. .
and a third wave bringing the most recent pre-Austronesian migration, the Trans–New Guinea family.

  • Amto–Musan languages (2)
  • (isolate)
  • Busa language (isolate)
  • East Bird's Head languages (3)
  • East Papuan languages (36)
  • Geelvink Bay languages (12)
  • Yuri language (isolate)
  • (isolate)
  • Kwomtari–Baibai languages (6)
  • Left May languages (7)
  • Sepik–Ramu languages (104)
  • (7)
  • Torricelli languages (48)
  • Trans–New Guinea languages (598)
  • West Papuan languages (26)
  • Yalë language (isolate)

Two of Wurm's isolates have since been linked as the

  • Lower Mamberamo languages (2),
and since Wurm's time another isolate and two languages belonging to a new family have been discovered,

Foley (2003)
Foley summarized the state of the literature. Besides Trans–New Guinea and families possibly belonging in TNG (see), he accepted the proposals for,

  • Lower Sepik-Ramu (Lower Sepik + Lower Ramu)
  • Middle Sepik (incl. and maybe Sepik Hill)
  • Torricelli
  • Lakes Plain and Cenderawasih Bay (probably related)
  • East Bird's Head
  • West Bird's Head
  • Bougainville (2 branches not close to each other: North Bougainville + South Bougainville)

Ross (2005)
Malcolm Ross re-evaluated Wurm's proposal on purely lexical grounds. That is, he looked at shared vocabulary, and especially shared idiosyncrasies analogous to English I and me vs. German ich and mich. The poor state of documentation of Papuan languages restricts this approach largely to . Nonetheless, Ross believes that he has been able to validate much of Wurm's classification, albeit with revisions to correct for Wurm's partially typological approach. (See Trans–New Guinea languages.) (2009) largely follows Ross.

It has been suggested that the families that appear when comparing pronouns may be due to pronoun borrowing rather than to genealogical relatedness. However, Ross argues that Papuan languages have pronoun systems, which are resistant to borrowing, and in any case that the massive number of languages with similar pronouns in a family like Trans–New Guinea preclude borrowing as an explanation. Also, he shows that the two cases of alleged pronoun borrowing in New Guinea are simple coincidence, explainable as regular developments from the protolanguages of the families in question: as earlier forms of the languages are reconstructed, their pronouns become less similar, not more. (Ross argues that pronoun systems, where borrowings are common, are found in hierarchical cultures such as those of and , where pronouns indicate details of relationship and social status rather than simply being grammatical as they are in the more egalitarian New Guinea societies.)

Ross has proposed 23 Papuan language families and 9–13 isolates. However, because of his more stringent criteria, he was not able to find enough data to classify all Papuan languages, especially many isolates that have no close relatives to aid in their classification.

Ross also found that the Lower Mamberamo languages (or at least the Warembori language—he had insufficient data on Pauwi) are Austronesian languages that have been heavily transformed by contact with Papuan languages, much as the has. The Reef Islands – Santa Cruz languages of Wurm's East Papuan phylum were a potential 24th family, but subsequent work has shown them to be highly divergent Austronesian languages as well.

Note that while this classification may be more reliable than past attempts, it is based on a single parameter, pronouns, and therefore must remain tentative. Although pronouns are conservative elements in a language, they are short and utilise a reduced set of the language's . Both phenomena greatly increase the possibility of chance resemblances, especially when they are not confirmed by similarities.

  • Trans–New Guinea (reduced to 466–493 languages)
  • ? Extended West Papuan (tentative)
    • West Papuan languages (27)
    • East Bird's Head – Sentani languages (9)
    • (1–2)
  • Mairasi languages (4)
  • East Cenderawasih (Geelvink Bay) languages (10)
  • Lakes Plain languages (19; upper )
  • Tor–Kwerba languages (17)
  • Nimboran languages (5)
  • (8)
  • Border languages (15)
  • Left May – Kwomtari languages (13) (problematic)
  • (2) (perhaps related to Sepik)
  • Torricelli languages (40–50) (perhaps related to Sepik)
  • (51)
  • Ramu – Lower Sepik languages (40) (first proposed by Foley)
  • (5)
  • (2) (perhaps in Ramu)
  • South-Central Papuan languages (22)
  • Eastern Trans-Fly languages (4; one in )
  • ? Yele – West New Britain languages (tentative)
    • Yélî Dnye (Yele) (isolate)
    • Anêm (isolate)
    • (Pele-Ata, Wasi) (isolate)
  • Baining (East New Britain) languages (8)
  • North Bougainville languages (4)
  • South Bougainville languages (9)
  • Central Solomons languages (4)

Language isolates
Sorted by location

north Irian:

:

:

  • (Gapun), located on what had been an offshore island 4000 BCE

Bismarck Archipelago:

Other

Former isolates classified by Ross:

Languages reassigned to the Austronesian family:

  • Lower Mamberamo (Donohue argues this is a Papuan family; may not belong)
  • Kazukuru language (2007)
  • Reef Islands – Santa Cruz (2007)

Unclassified due to lack of data:

Unaccounted for:

Wichmann (2013)
Søren Wichmann (2013) accepts the following 109 groups as coherent Papuan families, based on computational analyses performed by the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP) combined with Harald Hammarström's (2012) classification. Some of the groups could turn out to be related to each other, but Wichmann (2013) lists them as separate groups pending further research.

9 families have been broken up into separate groups in Wichmann's (2013) classification, which are:

  • (2 groups)
  • Dibiyaso-Doso-Turumsa (2 groups)
  • Kwalean (2 groups)
  • Lower Sepik-Ramu (5 groups)
  • Morehead-Wasur (2 groups)
  • Nuclear Trans-New Guinea (16 groups)
  • Pauwasi (2 groups: Western and Eastern)
  • Sentanic (2 groups)
  • (2 groups)

  1. West Timor-Alor-Pantar / East Timor-
  2. South Bougainville
  4. Namla-Tofanma
  5. ex-Pauwasi-1 (Western Pauwasi)
  6. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-1 (Asmat–Kamoro)
  9. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-2 (Awyu–Dumut)
  10. Inland Gulf
  11. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-3 ( Oksapmin)
  12. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-4 ()
  13. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-5 (Finisterre-Huon)
  14. Goilalan
  15. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-6 (Chimbu–Wahgi)
  16. / Awin–Pa / / East Strickland
  17. ex-Dibiyaso-Doso-Turumsa-1 ( Dibiyaso)
  19. Duna-Bogaya
  20. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-7 ()
  21. / /
  22. Greater Kwerba / Tor-Orya
  23. Nimboran / / Border
  25. North Halmahera
  26. Yalë
  27. ex-Dibiyaso-Doso-Turumsa-2 (Doso-Turumsa)
  28. Kwomtari
  29. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-8 ()
  30. ex-Morehead-Wasur-1 ( , )
  31. Hatam-Mansim
  32. Mor
  33. Pahoturi / Eastern Trans-Fly
  34. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-9 (Kainantu-Goroka)
  35. Yareban / Mailuan
  37. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-10 (Southern Adelbert: , , , , , , , , , , , , )
  38. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-11 ()
  39. West Bomberai
  40. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-12 (Wissel Lakes)
  41. Koiarian
  42. Kaki Ae
  45. Kolopom
  46. Bulaka River
  48. -
  51. Kayagar
  52. Suki-Gogodala / / Kiwaian
  53. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-13 (Binanderean + : , , , , , , )
  54. -East Kutubu
  55. -Teberan
  56. Turama-Kikori
  57. North Bougainville
  59. Mairasi
  61. ex-Kwalean-1 ( - )
  63. Savosavo
  65. Manubaran
  68. Amto-Musan / Left May / Busa
  69. ex-Sentanic-1 ( )
  70. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-1 ( Ap Ma)
  72. ex-Sko-1 ( , , , ; , )
  73. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-2 (Nor–Pondo: , , , , )
  74. Geelvink Bay
  75. Konda- Yahadian
  76. South Bird's Head family / Inanwatan
  77. Nuclear Torricelli
  80. Monumbo
  81. ex-Sentanic-2 (Sentani proper)
  82. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-3 ( )
  84. ex-Kwalean-2 ( )
  85. Lavukaleve
  86. Anem
  87. ex-Morehead-Wasur-2 ( Kunja)
  90. / / West Bird's Head
  91. Lakes Plain
  92. Pyu
  93. ex-Biksi-1 ( )
  94. ex-Sko-2 ( , ; , , Sumararo, )
  95. ex-Biksi-2 ( )
  97. Lepki–Murkim
  98. ex-Pauwasi-2 (Eastern Pauwasi)
  99. East Bird's Head
  102. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-14 (Croisilles)ISO 639-3 codes: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
  103. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-15 ( )
  106. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-4 ( )
  107. ex-Lower Sepik-Ramu-5 ( , , )
  108. ex-Nuclear Trans New Guinea-16 (Croisilles)ISO 639-3 codes: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

An automated computational analysis ( 4) by Müller, Velupillai, Wichmann et al. (2013)Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013. ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013). found lexical similarities among the following language groups. Note that some of these automatically generated groupings are due to chance resemblances.

Palmer (2018)
Bill Palmer et al. (2018) propose 43 independent families and 37 language isolates in the Papuasphere, comprising a total of 862 languages.
(2026). 9783110286427, De Gruyter Mouton.
A total of 80 independent groups are recognized. While & Hammarström's internal classification of Trans-New Guinea largely resembles a composite of Usher's and Ross' classifications, Palmer et al. do not address the more tentative families that Usher proposes, such as Northwest New Guinea.

The coherence of the South Bird's Head, East Bird's Head, Pauwasi, Kwomtari, and Central Solomons families are uncertain, and hence are marked below as "tentative."

(2026). 9780858835627, Pacific Linguistics.
(2026). 9783110286427, De Gruyter Mouton.
(2026). 9783110286427, De Gruyter Mouton.
(2026). 9783110286427, De Gruyter Mouton.

Papuan independent language families (43 families)

  • Trans New Guinea (431)
  • Torricelli (50)
  • (45)
  • Lower Sepik-Ramu (35)
  • (27)
  • Timor-Alor-Pantar (26)
  • Tor-Kwerba (23)
  • Lakes Plain (20)
  • (14)
  • (13)
  • East Cenderawasih Bay (10)
  • North Halmahera (10)
  • South Bird's Head (10) tentative;
  • Kwomtari (6) tentative;
  • Leonard Schultze (6)
  • Upper Yuat (6)
  • West Bird's Head (6)
  • East Bird's Head (5) tentative;
  • Baining (5)
  • Pauwasi (5) tentative;
  • Nimboran (5)
  • (5)
  • Left May (5)
  • Pahoturi River (5)
  • (5)
  • North Bougainville (4)
  • South Bougainville (4)
  • Central Solomons (4) tentative;
  • (4)
  • Sentani (4)
  • Mairasi (3)
  • Butam-Taulil (2)
  • Bayono-Awbono (2)
  • Teberan (2)
  • (2)
  • (2)
  • (2)
  • Tofanma (2)
  • (2)
  • Amto-Musan (2)
  • Doso-Turumsa (2)
  • Komolom (2)
  • Yelmek-Maklew (2)

Papuan isolates and unclassified languages (37 total)

Bird's Head Peninsula / Bomberai Peninsula (5)

North coast / hinterland (12)

Central West Papua (2)

- basin (3)

Gulf of Papua / hinterland (8)

Bismarck Archipelago (6)

(Louisiade Archipelago) (1)
  • Yélî Dnye

Glottolog 4.0 (2019)
4.0 (2019), based partly on Usher, recognizes 70 independent families and 55 isolates.

Families (70)

  • West Bird's Head (5)
  • Yareban (5)
  • (5)
  • Arafundi (4)
  • Eastern Trans-Fly (4)
  • North Bougainville (4)
  • Sentanic (4)
  • Suki-Gogodala (4)
  • Turama-Kikori (4)
  • Walioic (4)
  • East Bird's Head (3)
  • Kamula-Elevala (3)
  • Kayagaric (3)
  • Kolopom (3)
  • Kwalean (3)
  • Mairasic (3)
  • (3)
  • West Bomberai (3)
  • Amto-Musan (2)
  • Baibai-Fas (2)
  • Bayono-Awbono (2)
  • (2)
  • Bulaka River (2)
  • Doso-Turumsa (2)
  • East Kutubu (2)
  • Hatam-Mansim (2)
  • Inanwatan (2)
  • Konda-Yahadian (2)
  • Kwomtari-Nai (2)
  • Lepki-Murkim (2)
  • Manubaran (2)
  • Mombum-Koneraw (2)
  • Namla-Tofanma (2)
  • Pahoturi (2)
  • (2)
  • (2)
  • Somahai (2)
  • Taulil-Butam (2)
  • Teberan (2)
  • Yawa-Saweru (2)

Isolates (55)

Usher & Suter (2024)
The following families are identified by Timothy Usher and Edgar Suter in their NewGuineaWorld project:Usher, Timothy and Edgar Suter. NewGuineaWorld.

  • Arai and Samaia Rivers (unites Left May, Amto–Musan, and Pyu)
  • Bulaka River
  • Cenderawasih Bay (= East Geelvink Bay)
  • Central New Guinea Highlands (Enga – Southern Highlands and Simbu – Western Highlands = Chimbu–Wahgi)
  • East Trans-Fly (unites Eastern Trans-Fly, Pahoturi, and )
  • Etna Bay (= Mairasi)
  • Kaki Ae – Kerema Bay (= Eleman)
  • Keram and Ramu Rivers (= Ramu)
  • Kibiri-Porome
  • Lakes Plains
  • Lower Sepik River
  • – Upper Yuat River (unites Arafundi and )
  • Middle Yuat River
  • Morehead River (= Yam)
  • Nawa River (= Kaure–Kosare)
  • Northwest New Guinea (tentative. unites , Sentani, Border, , and Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran)
  • Oro – Wharton Range (unites Binanderean and Goilalan)
  • Papuan Gulf (tentative. unites Kutubuan–Kikorian, East Strickland, Doso–Turumsa, Gogodala–Suki, and Teberan– – )
  • Pauwasi River (expands Pauwasi with several recently discovered languages)
  • Senu River (unites Kwomtari, Nagatman, and Busa)
  • Sepik River
  • Torricelli Range – Sepik Coast (= Torricelli)
  • Trans–New Guinea
  • West Papuan

In addition, poorly attested remains unclassified. Extinct and the East Papuan languages have not been addressed, except to identify as an Austronesian language.

Greenberg's classification
Joseph Greenberg proposed an Indo-Pacific phylum containing the (Northern) Andamanese languages, all Papuan languages, and the Tasmanian languages, but not the Australian Aboriginal languages. Very few linguists accept his grouping. It is distinct from the Trans–New Guinea phylum of the classifications below.

External relations
proposed that the Andamanese languages (or at least the Great Andamanese languages) off the coast of are related to the Papuan or West Papuan languages. stated that the lexical similarities between Great Andamanese and the West Papuan and Timor–Alor families "are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity ... in a number of instances". However, he considered this not evidence of a connection between (Great) Andamanese and Trans–New Guinea, but of a substratum from an earlier migration to New Guinea from the west.

Greenberg also suggested a connection to the Tasmanian languages. However, the Tasmanian peoples were isolated for perhaps 10,000 years, their disappearance wiped out their languages before much was recorded of them, and few linguists expect that they will ever be linked to another language family.

William A. Foley (1986) noted lexical similarities between R. M. W. Dixon's 1980 reconstruction of proto-Australian and the languages of the East New Guinea Highlands. He believed that it was naïve to expect to find a single Papuan or Australian language family when New Guinea and Australia had been a single landmass for most of their human history, having been separated by the only 8000 years ago, and that a deep reconstruction would likely include languages from both. However, Dixon later abandoned his proto-Australian proposal,

(2026). 9780521473781, Cambridge University Press.
and Foley's ideas need to be re-evaluated in light of recent research. Wurm also suggested the Sepik–Ramu languages have similarities with the Australian languages, but believed this may be due to a substratum effect, but nevertheless believed that the Australian languages represent a linguistic group that existed in New Guinea before the arrival of the Papuan languages (which he believed arrived in at least two different groups).

Typology
The West Papuan, Lower Mamberamo, and most Torricelli languages are all left-headed, as well as the languages of and New Ireland. These languages all have SVO word order, with the exception of the language isolate , which has VSO word order. All other Papuan languages are right-headed.
(2026). 9783110286427, De Gruyter Mouton.

Tonal Papuan languages include the , , , , Lakes Plain, and languages.

See also
  • Trans–New Guinea languages
  • Proto-Trans–New Guinea language

Notes
General references

Further reading
Comparative wordlists

  • Conrad, R. and Dye, W. " Some Language Relationships in the Upper Sepik Region of Papua New Guinea". In Conrad, R., Dye, W., Thomson, N. and Bruce Jr., L. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 18. A-40:1-36. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975.
  • Davies, J. and " A linguistic survey of the Upper Yuat". In Adams, K., Lauck, L., Miedema, J., Welling, F., Stokhof, W., Flassy, D., Oguri, H., Collier, K., Gregerson, K., Phinnemore, T., Scorza, D., Davies, J., Comrie, B. and Abbott, S. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 22. A-63:275-312. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1985.
  • Dutton, T.E. "Notes on the Languages of the Rigo Area of the Central District of Papua". In Wurm, S.A. and Laycock, D.C. editors, Pacific linguistic studies in honour of Arthur Capell. C-13:879-984. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970.
  • Foley, W.A. "Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik-Ramu basin". In Pawley, A., Attenborough, R., Golson, J. and Hide, R. editors, Papuan Pasts: Cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. PL-572:109-144. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 2005.
  • Franklin, K.J. "Other Language Groups in the Gulf District and Adjacent Areas". In Franklin, K. editor, The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea. C-26:261-278. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973.
  • 1968. Languages of the Lumi Subdistrict (West Sepik District), New Guinea. Oceanic Linguistics, 7 (1): 36–66.
  • Macdonald, G.E. " The Teberan Language Family". In Franklin, K. editor, The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea. C-26:111-148. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973.
  • McElhanon, K.A. and Voorhoeve, C.L. The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in deep-level genetic relationships. B-16, vi + 112 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970.
  • Miedema, J. and Welling, F.I. "Fieldnotes on languages and dialects in the Kebar district, Bird's Head, Irian Jaya". In Adams, K., Lauck, L., Miedema, J., Welling, F., Stokhof, W., Flassy, D., Oguri, H., Collier, K., Gregerson, K., Phinnemore, T., Scorza, D., Davies, J., Comrie, B. and Abbott, S. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 22. A-63:29-52. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1985.
  • Shaw, R.D. " The Bosavi language family". In Laycock, D., Seiler, W., Bruce, L., Chlenov, M., Shaw, R.D., Holzknecht, S., Scott, G., Nekitel, O., Wurm, S.A., Goldman, L. and Fingleton, J. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 24. A-70:45-76. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1986.
  • Shaw, R.D. " A Tentative Classification of the Languages of the Mt Bosavi Region". In Franklin, K. editor, The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea. C-26:187-215. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973.
  • Thomson, N.P. "The Dialects of Magi". In Conrad, R., Dye, W., Thomson, N. and Bruce Jr., L. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 18. A-40:37-90. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975.
  • Voorhoeve, C.L. Languages of Irian Jaya: Checklist. Preliminary classification, language maps, wordlists. B-31, iv + 133 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975.
  • Voorhoeve, C.L. "Miscellaneous Notes on Languages in West Irian, New Guinea". In Dutton, T., Voorhoeve, C. and Wurm, S.A. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 14. A-28:47-114. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1971.

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